???????????????????????????????
Evidence For Design In The Universe
from Limits for the Universe by Hugh Ross, Ph.D. in Astronomy

1

??????????????? Gravitational coupling constant
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No stars less than 1.4 solar masses, hence short stellar lifespans
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No stars more than 0.8 solar masses, hence no heavy element production
???????????????????????????????????????????????

2

??????????????? Strong nuclear force coupling constant
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No hydrogen; nuclei essential for life are unstable
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No elements other than hydrogen
???????????????????????????????????????????????

3

??????????????? Weak nuclear force coupling constant
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? All hydrogen is converted to helium in the big bang, hence too much heavy elements
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No helium produced from big bang, hence not enough heavy elements
???????????????????????????????????????????????

4

??????????????? Electromagnetic coupling constant
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No chemical bonding; elements more massive than boron are unstable to fission
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No chemical bonding
???????????????????????????????????????????????

5

??????????????? Ratio of protons to electrons formation
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? electromagnetism dominates gravity preventing galaxy, star, and planet formation
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Electromagnetism dominates gravity preventing galaxy, star, and planet formation
???????????????????????????????????????????????

6

??????????????? Ratio of electron to proton mass
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No chemical bonding
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No chemical bonding
???????????????????????????????????????????????

7

??????????????? Expansion rate of the universe
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No galaxy formation
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Universe collapses prior to star formation
???????????????????????????????????????????????

8

??????????????? Entropy level of universe
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No star condensation within the proto-galaxies
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No proto-galaxy formation
???????????????????????????????????????????????

9

??????????????? Mass density of the universe
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Too much deuterium from big bang, hence stars burn too rapidly
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No helium from big bang, hence not enough heavy elements
???????????????????????????????????????????????

10

??????????????? Age of the universe
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If older:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No solar-type stars in a stable burning phase in the right part of the galaxy
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If younger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Solar-type stars in a stable burning phase would not yet have formed
???????????????????????????????????????????????

11

??????????????? Initial uniformity of radiation
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If  smoother:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Stars, star clusters, and galaxies would not have formed
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If coarser:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Universe by now would be mostly black holes and empty space
???????????????????????????????????????????????

12

??????????????? Average distance between stars
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Heavy element density too thin for rocky planet production
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Planetary orbits become destabilized
???????????????????????????????????????????????

13

??????????????? Solar luminosity
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If increases too soon:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Runaway green house effect
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

?
??????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If increases too late:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Frozen oceans
???????????????????????????????????????????????

14

??????????????? Fine structure constant*
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No stars more than 0.7 solar masses
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No stars less then 1.8 solar masses
???????????????????????????????????????????????

15

??????????????? Decay rate of the proton
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Life would be exterminated by the release of radiation
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Insufficient matter in the universe for life
???????????????????????????????????????????????

16

??????????????? 12C to 16O energy level ratio
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Insufficient oxygen
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Insufficient carbon
???????????????????????????????????????????????

17

??????????????? Decay rate of 8Be
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If slower:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Heavy element fusion would generate catastrophic explosions in all the stars
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If faster:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? No element production beyond beryllium and, hence, no life chemistry possible
???????????????????????????????????????????????

18

??????????????? Mass difference between the neutron and the proton
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Protons would decay before stable nuclei could form
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Protons would decay before stable nuclei could form
???????????????????????????????????????????????

19

??????????????? Initial excess of nucleons over anti-nucleons
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Too much radiation for planets to form
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Not enough matter for galaxies or stars to form
???????????????????????????????????????????????

20

??????????????? Galaxy type
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If too elliptical:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Star formation ceases  before sufficient heavy element buildup for life chemistry
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If too irregular:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Radiation exposure on occasion is too severe and/or heavy elements for life
chemistry are not available
???????????????????????????????????????????????

21

??????????????? Parent star distance from center of galaxy
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If farther:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Quantity of heavy elements would be insufficient to make rocky planets
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If closer:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Stellar density and radiation would be too great
???????????????????????????????????????????????

22

??????????????? Number of stars in the planetary system
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If more than one:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Tidal interactions would disrupt planetary orbits
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If less than one:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Heat produced would be insufficient for life
???????????????????????????????????????????????

23

??????????????? Parent star birth date
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If more recent:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Star wuld not yet have reached stable burning phase
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If less recent:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Stellar system would not yet contain enough heavy elements
???????????????????????????????????????????????

24

??????????????? Parent star mass
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Luminosity would change too fast; star would burn too rapidly
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If less:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Range of distances appropriate for life would be too narrow; tidal forces would
disrupt the rotational period for a planet of the right distance; uv radiation
would be inadequate for plants to make sugars and oxygen
???????????????????????????????????????????????

25

??????????????? Parent star age
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If older:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Luminosity of star would change too quickly
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If younger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Luminosity of star would change too quickly
???????????????????????????????????????????????

26

??????????????? Parent star color
???????????????

??????????????????????????????? If redder:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Photosynthetic response would be insufficient
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If bluer:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Photosynthetic response would be insufficient
???????????????????????????????????????????????

27

??????????????? Supernovae eruptions
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If too close:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Life on the planet would be exterminated
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If too far:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Not enough heavy element ashes for the formation of rocky planets
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If too infrequent:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Not enough heavy element ashes for the formation of rocky planets
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If too frequent:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Life on the planet would be exterminated
???????????????????????????????????????????????

28

??????????????? Whiete dwarf binaries
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If too few:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Insufficient fluorine produced for life chemistry to proceed
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If too many: 
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Disruption of planetary orbits from stellar density; life on the planet would
be exterminated
???????????????????????????????????????????????

29

??????????????? Surface gravity (escape velocity)
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If stronger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Atmosphere would retain too much ammonia and methane
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If weaker:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Planet’s atmosphere would lose too much water
???????????????????????????????????????????????

30

??????????????? Distance from parent star
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If farther:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Planet would be too cool for a stable water cycle
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If closer:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Planet would be too warm for a stable water cycle
???????????????????????????????????????????????

31

??????????????? Inclination of orbit
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If too great:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Temperature differences on the planet would be too extreme
???????????????????????????????????????????????

32

??????????????? Orbital eccentricity
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If too great:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Seasonal temperature differences would be too extreme
???????????????????????????????????????????????

33

??????????????? Axial tilt
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Surface temperature differences would be too great
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If less:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Surface temperature differences would be too great
???????????????????????????????????????????????

34

??????????????? Rotation period
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If longer:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Diurnal temperature differences would be too great
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If shorter:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Atmospheric wind velocities would be too great
???????????????????????????????????????????????

35

??????????????? Gravitational interaction with a moon
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Tidal effects on the oceans, atmosphere, and rotational period would be too
severe
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If less:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Orbital obliquity changes would cause climatic instabilities
???????????????????????????????????????????????

36

??????????????? Magnetic field
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If stronger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Electromagnetic storms would be too severe
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If weaker:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Inadequate protection from hard steller radiation
???????????????????????????????????????????????

37

??????????????? Thickness of crust
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If thicker:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Too much oxygen would be transferred from the atmosphere to the crust
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If thinner:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Volcanic and tectonic activity would be too great
???????????????????????????????????????????????

38

??????????????? Albedo (ratio of reflected light to total amount falling on surface)
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Runaway ice age would develop
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If less:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Runaway green house effect would develop
?????????????????????
??????????????????????????

39

??????????????? Oxygen to nitrogen ratio in atmosphere
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If larger:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Advanced life functions would proceed too quickly
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Advanced life functions would proceed too slowly
???????????????????????????????????????????????

40

??????????????? Carbon dioxide level in atmosphere
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Runaway greenhouse effect would develop
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If less:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Plants would not be able to maintain efficient photosynthesis
???????????????????????????????????????????????

41

??????????????? Water vapor level in atmosphere
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Runaway greenhouse effect would develop
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If less:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Rainfall would be too meager for advanced life on the land
???????????????????????????????????????????????

42

??????????????? Ozone level in atmosphere
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Surface temperatures would be too low
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If less
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Surface temperatures would be too high; there would be too much uv radiation
at the surface
???????????????????????????????????????????????

43

??????????????? Atmospheric electric discharge rate
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Too much fire destruction would occur
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If less:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Too little nitrogen would be fixed in the atmosphere
???????????????????????????????????????????????

44

??????????????? Oxygen quantity in atmosphere
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Plants and hydrocarbons would burn up too easily
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If less:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Advanced animals would have too little to breathe
???????????????????????????????????????????????

45

??????????????? Oceans to continents ratio
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Diversity and complexity of life-forms would be limited
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If smaller:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? diversity and complexity of life-forms would be limited
???????????????????????????????????????????????

46

??????????????? Soil mineralization
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If too nutrient poor:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? diversity and complexity of life-forms would be limited
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If too nutrient rich:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Diversity and complexity of life-forms would be limited
???????????????????????????????????????????????

47

??????????????? Seismic activity
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If greater:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Too many life-forms would be destroyed
???????????????????????????????????????????????

 

???????????????  
???????????????
??????????????????????????????? If less:
???????????????????????????????
??????????????????????????????????????????????? Nutrients on ocean floors (from river runoff) would not be recycled to the continents
through tectonic uplift
???????????????????????????????????????????????

*(a function of three other fundamental constants, Planck’s constant, the velocity
of light, and the electron charge each of which, therefore, must be fine-tuned)